BharatNotes Overview
The Western Ghats (Sahyadri) and Eastern Ghats are two parallel hill ranges flanking the Deccan Plateau — the Western Ghats running along the Arabian Sea coast, the Eastern Ghats along the Bay of Bengal coast. Together they form the backbone of peninsular India's river systems, biodiversity, and climate. The Western Ghats is one of the world's eight biodiversity "hottest hotspots" and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2012). For UPSC, these ranges are tested across Prelims (geography facts) and Mains (GS1 — biodiversity, environment policy).
Western Ghats — Key Facts
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Other name | Sahyadri Mountains |
| Length | ~1,600 km — from the Tapti River (Gujarat-Maharashtra border) to Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu) |
| Width | 50–80 km (average) |
| Highest peak | Anamudi (2,695 m) — Kerala; highest peak in India south of the Himalayas |
| States covered | Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu |
| Average elevation | 1,200 m (general crest), rising to 2,695 m at Anamudi |
| UNESCO status | World Heritage Site inscribed in 2012 — 39 component sites across 7 sub-clusters |
UNESCO World Heritage — 39 Component Sites
The Western Ghats serial nomination (2012) comprises 39 component sites distributed across four states — 20 in Kerala, 10 in Karnataka, 6 in Tamil Nadu, and 3 in Maharashtra — grouped into 7 sub-clusters. The serial nomination was used because no single contiguous site could capture the full range of biodiversity across this 1,600 km range.
Key protected areas within the UNESCO nomination include Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Silent Valley National Park, Kudremukh National Park, Periyar Tiger Reserve, and Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve.
Rivers Originating in the Western Ghats
The Western Ghats form one of India's principal watersheds, feeding rivers that drain nearly 40% of the country's land area:
| River | States Drained | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Godavari | Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh | Originates near Trimbakeshwar (Nashik); India's longest peninsular river (1,465 km) |
| Krishna | Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh | Originates at Mahabaleshwar (1,336 m altitude); 1,400 km long |
| Cauvery (Kaveri) | Karnataka, Tamil Nadu | Originates at Talakaveri, Brahmagiri Hills, Coorg; the "Ganga of the South" |
| Tungabhadra | Karnataka | Major Krishna tributary; flows eastward; Hampi on its banks |
| Periyar | Kerala | Flows westward into the Arabian Sea; Periyar Tiger Reserve |
| Sharavathi | Karnataka | Jog Falls (253 m drop, four cascades — Raja, Rani, Roarer, Rocket) — segmented waterfall that becomes plunge in monsoon; India's tallest plunge waterfall is Nohkalikai, Meghalaya (340 m) |
A key feature is the Western and Eastern watershed divide: rivers originating on the western slope of the Ghats (e.g., Periyar, Netravati) are short, fast, and drain westward into the Arabian Sea, while rivers originating on the eastern slope (Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery) are long, slow-moving, and drain eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
Western Ghats as a Biodiversity Hotspot
The Western Ghats is recognised as one of the world's 36 biodiversity hotspots (Conservation International classification). It supports extraordinary species diversity, most of it endemic:
| Category | Number of Species | Endemism (approx.) |
|---|---|---|
| Flowering plants | ~5,000 | ~1,700 endemic |
| Amphibians | ~179 | ~87% endemic |
| Reptiles | ~157 | ~62% endemic |
| Birds | ~508 | ~16% endemic |
| Mammals | ~139 | ~12% endemic |
Notable endemic species include the Lion-tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Tahr (State animal of Tamil Nadu), Malabar Giant Squirrel, Nilgiri Langur, Malabar civet, and numerous endemic frogs and fish of the Western Ghats.
Hill Stations
| Hill Station | State | Elevation | Notable Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ooty (Udhagamandalam) | Tamil Nadu | 2,240 m | Nilgiri Mountain Railway (UNESCO Heritage); former Madras summer capital |
| Munnar | Kerala | ~1,600 m | Tea plantations; Eravikulam NP (Nilgiri Tahr) |
| Kodaikanal | Tamil Nadu | 2,100 m | Star-shaped lake; shola forests; Kurinji flower (blooms every 12 years) |
| Coorg (Kodagu) | Karnataka | ~1,200 m | Coffee and spice estates; Kodava culture |
| Mahabaleshwar | Maharashtra | 1,353 m | Origin of Krishna River; strawberry cultivation |
| Lonavala | Maharashtra | ~624 m | Gateway to Sahyadri for Mumbai-Pune corridor |
Eastern Ghats — Key Facts
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Nature | Discontinuous — broken by river valleys; not a continuous range like Western Ghats |
| Length | ~1,750 km — from Odisha to Tamil Nadu (some estimates include Gujarat segment) |
| Average elevation | ~600 m (significantly lower than Western Ghats) |
| Highest peak | Jindhagada Peak (1,690 m), Andhra Pradesh — confirmed highest in 2011; also known as Arma Konda/Sitamma Konda area |
| Other significant peaks | Mahendragiri (1,501 m, Odisha-Andhra border) |
| States covered | Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu |
The Eastern Ghats are separated by the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery river valleys as they flow east, giving the range its characteristic discontinuous appearance. The terrain is lower, drier, and ecologically distinct from the wet, continuous Western Ghats.
Western Ghats vs Eastern Ghats — Comparison
| Feature | Western Ghats | Eastern Ghats |
|---|---|---|
| Continuity | Continuous range | Discontinuous, broken by rivers |
| Length | ~1,600 km | ~1,750 km (discontinuous) |
| Average elevation | ~1,200 m | ~600 m |
| Highest peak | Anamudi, 2,695 m (Kerala) | Jindhagada Peak, 1,690 m (Andhra Pradesh) |
| Rainfall | Very heavy (windward side gets 2,500–5,000 mm); rain shadow on leeward side | Moderate (600–1,000 mm); receives NE monsoon |
| Forests | Tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen | Tropical dry deciduous |
| Rivers | Source of Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Periyar | Cut through by major rivers |
| UNESCO status | World Heritage Site (2012) | Not designated |
| Biodiversity | Hotspot (globally recognized) | Significant but less endemic |
Threats to Western Ghats
The Western Ghats faces multiple anthropogenic threats:
- Deforestation and habitat fragmentation: Expansion of tea, coffee, cardamom, and eucalyptus plantations; road widening projects (NH 66, NH 544)
- Mining: Iron ore and bauxite mining in Goa and Karnataka (Kudremukh controversy)
- Hydropower projects: Large dams (Silent Valley, Athirappilly) threatening river ecosystems and forest integrity
- Invasive species: Lantana camara and Eupatorium have colonised degraded forest edges
- Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP/Gadgil Committee, 2011): Recommended declaring 64% of Western Ghats as Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA); modified by Kasturirangan Committee (2013), which recommended ESA status for 37% (~60,000 km²)
The Kasturirangan report (2013) recommendations remain partially implemented — a long-running controversy over balancing conservation with local livelihoods in six states.
Exam Strategy
Prelims Focus:
- Anamudi (2,695 m) — highest peak south of Himalayas (Western Ghats, Kerala)
- UNESCO inscribed in 2012 — 39 component sites
- Western Ghats = continuous; Eastern Ghats = discontinuous
- Jindhagada Peak (1,690 m) — highest peak of Eastern Ghats (Andhra Pradesh; confirmed 2011)
- Rivers: Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery originate in Western Ghats
- Jog Falls = on the Sharavathi River
Mains Focus:
- Western Ghats as a biodiversity hotspot: endemism, fragility, WGEEP vs Kasturirangan recommendations
- Comparison of Western and Eastern Ghats: structure, ecology, rivers
- Environmental threats and the ESA debate — balancing conservation with development
- Importance of Western Ghats for India's water security (feeds rivers draining 40% of land area)
Cross-paper relevance
- GS1 — Geography (primary) — Western Ghats vs Eastern Ghats: formation, extent, passes, rivers, climate role (orographic rainfall)
- GS3 — Environment — Western Ghats as a biodiversity hotspot (UNESCO World Heritage Sites); Madhav Gadgil/HLWG reports; ESZ designation; Eastern Ghats tribal communities
- GS2 — Governance: Centre-State conflicts over Gadgil/Kasturirangan recommendations; mining vs. conservation; tribal rights (PESA)
- Essay — "Development vs. conservation — the Western Ghats dilemma mirrors India's civilisational crossroads" (recurring)
Recent Developments (2024–2026)
Wayanad Landslide 2024 — ESA Notification Sixth Re-Issuance, Still Pending
The catastrophic Wayanad landslides of July 30, 2024 (~372 casualties — Kerala's deadliest landslide event) occurred in an area the Gadgil Committee (2011) had recommended for Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) status — protection that would have restricted large-scale agricultural and construction activities. Just one day after the disaster, MoEF&CC re-issued the draft ESA notification for the sixth time (July 31, 2024) — still proposing ~56,825 sq km across Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The disaster accelerated the NGT's attention: the NGT took suo motu cognizance and directed MoEF to publish the final notification by August 2025. However, state resistance remained firm — Karnataka's Cabinet passed a resolution opposing the notification (September 2024), citing impact on 1,499 villages across 33 taluks, and Kerala sought a reduction of its designated ESA from 13,108 sq km to 9,993.7 sq km. By September 2025, MoEF sought yet another extension from NGT, citing incomplete stakeholder consultations. A Sanjay Kumar-headed review panel (2025) was constituted to revisit the demarcation, targeting finalization by August 2025 — a deadline that also slipped. A petition filed in the Supreme Court challenged the constitutional validity of the draft notification; the SC asked the Centre to file its response. As of May 2026, no final ESA notification has been published in the Gazette — over 13 years after the Kasturirangan Committee submitted its report.
The structural reason for the delay is the Centre-State political geometry: all six WG states have significant forest-edge populations whose livelihoods (agriculture, plantations, tourism) would face restrictions under ESA rules. No ruling party at the Centre can afford a simultaneous break with all six state governments, especially in election years.
UPSC angle: This is a textbook case for Mains GS3 + Essay — "cooperative federalism under environmental stress." Key dimensions: Gadgil's 64% ESA vs Kasturirangan's 37% compromise; state veto power in Centre-notified ESAs; the Wayanad disaster as a real-world cost of regulatory delay; ESA rules under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986; NGT's supervisory jurisdiction over MoEF notification timelines.
ISFR 2023 — Western Ghats Forest Cover Assessment (WG-Specific Data)
The India State of Forest Report 2023 (18th edition, FSI, December 2023) included a first-ever dedicated assessment of forest cover within the Western Ghats ESA boundary:
- WG ESA total area: 60,285.61 sq km; 44,043.99 sq km (73%) is under forest cover (FSI, ISFR 2023 Vol. II)
- Net loss 2013–2023: 58.22 sq km of forest cover within the WG ESA — structurally significant given the biodiversity concentration
- Forest type losses: Moderately Dense Forest (−1,043.23 sq km) and Open Forest (−2,480.11 sq km) — partially offset by Very Dense Forest gains in Kerala and Karnataka
- States with net gain: Karnataka and Kerala; States with net loss: Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
- Worst-performing district: Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu) — sharpest single-district decline of 123 sq km over the decade
- India's overall forest and tree cover: 8,27,357 sq km (25.17% of geographic area); of this, Very Dense Forest accounts for 3.61%
The Nilgiris district data is exam-significant: it is simultaneously within the UNESCO World Heritage Site, proposed ESA, and the habitat of the Nilgiri Tahr — making its 123 sq km forest loss the intersection of all WG conservation debates.
Nilgiri Tahr Census 2025 (April 24–27): The first-ever synchronized joint census by Kerala and Tamil Nadu recorded ~2,655 individuals — Kerala 1,352, Tamil Nadu 1,303 — across 265 census blocks. Eravikulam National Park (Kerala) holds the largest single population (841). Tamil Nadu recorded a 21% increase vs 2024, though the total remains below the 2015 estimate of ~3,122. IUCN status: Endangered (Schedule I, WPA 1972). This synchronized methodology is itself a model for shared wildlife governance.
UPSC angle: ISFR 2023, Green India Mission targets (5 Mha forest/tree cover addition + 5 Mha quality improvement by 2030), WG ESA forest data, and Nilgiri Tahr conservation all intersect in GS3 biodiversity/environment questions. The 73% forest coverage within the proposed ESA boundary is a data anchor for Mains answers arguing that ESA notification protects a still-functional landscape — the 58 sq km net loss over a decade shows it is degrading but recoverable, not already lost.
Sources: UNESCO World Heritage Centre (whc.unesco.org — Western Ghats, list 1342); IUCN World Heritage Outlook; WWF India (wwfindia.org); MoEFCC — Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel Report (Gadgil, 2011); Kasturirangan Committee Report (2013); Wikipedia (Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Arma Konda)
Key Terms
Western and Eastern Ghats
- Definition: The Western and Eastern Ghats are two parallel hill systems flanking India's peninsular plateau — the Western Ghats running continuously along the west coast (~1,600 km, six states) and the Eastern Ghats forming a discontinuous, river-eroded chain along the east coast — together enclosing the Deccan Plateau.
- Context: The Western Ghats (Sahyadris) run parallel to the Arabian Sea coast from the Tapi valley in the north to Kanniyakumari in the south, while the Eastern Ghats run along the Bay of Bengal from Odisha to Tamil Nadu. The two ranges converge at the Nilgiri Hills in the south. The Western Ghats were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012 (39 component sites in seven sub-clusters) and form one of the world's recognised biodiversity hotspots, whereas the Eastern Ghats are lower, broken by major east-flowing rivers, and are not a UNESCO hotspot.
- UPSC Relevance: This is a foundational GS1 physical-geography concept that underpins recurring Prelims and Mains questions on Indian relief, drainage (east- vs west-flowing rivers), monsoon distribution (orographic rainfall on the windward Western Ghats vs the drier Eastern Ghats), and biodiversity/conservation (Western Ghats hotspot, Gadgil and Kasturirangan reports). UPSC frequently tests comparative features — continuity, height, peaks (Anamudi vs Arma Konda), gaps (Palghat) — and the link between the Ghats and peninsular drainage patterns. No verified PYQ is cited for this exact term, but mastery here supports questions across GS1 geography and GS3 environment.
