BharatNotes Climate Change and Disaster Intensification — The Nexus
Climate change is not a future threat — it is a disaster multiplier already reshaping the frequency, intensity, and geographic spread of natural hazards. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) provides the most comprehensive scientific evidence of this nexus.
IPCC AR6 — Key Findings
The AR6 was released in stages: Working Group I (August 2021), Working Group II (February 2022), Working Group III (April 2022), and the Synthesis Report (March 2023).
| Finding | Detail |
|---|---|
| Extreme weather | Human influence, particularly greenhouse gas emissions, is likely the main driver of observed global-scale intensification of heavy precipitation over land regions |
| Flooding and storms | Since 2008, extreme floods and storms have forced over 20 million people from their homes every year |
| Water scarcity | About half the global population faces severe water scarcity for at least one month per year |
| Concurrent hazards | Every increment of global warming intensifies multiple and concurrent hazards |
| Worse than expected | Adverse climate impacts are already more far-reaching and extreme than anticipated in previous assessments |
| Irreversibility | Some changes (sea-level rise, glacier loss, permafrost thaw) are irreversible on centennial to millennial timescales |
For Mains: IPCC AR6 establishes "unequivocal" human influence on climate warming. The frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation events have "likely increased" at the global scale over a majority of land regions. This forms the scientific basis for all climate-disaster policy arguments.
How Climate Change Intensifies Different Disasters
| Disaster Type | Climate Link |
|---|---|
| Heat waves | Rising baseline temperatures make extreme heat events more frequent, longer, and more intense |
| Floods | Warmer atmosphere holds 7% more moisture per degree Celsius rise (Clausius-Clapeyron relation) — heavier rainfall |
| Cyclones | Warming sea surface temperatures fuel more intense cyclones (higher wind speeds, heavier rainfall) |
| Droughts | Shifting monsoon patterns, reduced snowfall, higher evapotranspiration |
| GLOFs | Accelerated glacier retreat creates and expands glacial lakes — higher GLOF risk |
| Wildfires | Higher temperatures, drier conditions, longer fire seasons |
| Sea-level rise | Thermal expansion + ice melt — increased coastal flooding, erosion, salinisation |
| Cloud bursts | Localised extreme precipitation events intensifying in Himalayan and Western Ghat regions |
Heat Waves in India
IMD Criteria for Heat Wave Declaration
| Criterion | Threshold |
|---|---|
| Minimum temperature | Maximum temperature must reach at least 40 degrees C in plains, 30 degrees C in hilly regions, 37 degrees C in coastal areas |
| Departure-based | Heat wave: departure of 4.5 degrees C or more above 30-year normal maximum |
| Severe heat wave | Departure of 6.4 degrees C or more above normal |
| Absolute threshold | Heat wave declared if maximum temperature exceeds 45 degrees C regardless of normal |
| Severe absolute | Declared if maximum temperature reaches 47 degrees C or above |
Heat Wave Mortality and Trends
| Statistic | Detail |
|---|---|
| Mortality increase | Heat wave mortality rates per million have increased by 62.2% over the last four decades |
| Andhra Pradesh 2003 | Estimated 3,000+ deaths in a single heat wave event |
| 2015 heat wave | Over 2,500 deaths across India (Andhra Pradesh and Telangana worst affected) |
| Projection (World Bank) | By 2030, 160-200 million Indians could be exposed to lethal heat waves annually |
| Vulnerable groups | Outdoor workers (construction, agriculture), elderly, children, urban poor in heat-island areas |
Heat Action Plans (HAPs)
India's Heat Action Plans are the primary policy response to heat waves, implemented in collaboration with IMD, NDMA, and state/local health departments.
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| First HAP | Ahmedabad (2013) — developed after the 2010 Ahmedabad heat wave; became the model for other cities |
| Coverage | HAPs implemented in 23 heat-wave-prone states as of 2025 |
| Components | Early warning systems, public awareness campaigns, cool-roof programmes, drinking water stations, hospital preparedness |
| IMD role | Issues heat wave alerts (colour-coded: yellow, orange, red) from April to June |
| Limitations | Many HAPs remain on paper; limited implementation at ward/block level; no legal mandate; poor monitoring of outdoor workers |
For Mains: Evaluate the effectiveness of Heat Action Plans in India. While Ahmedabad's HAP reduced heat mortality by 25-40%, most state HAPs lack enforcement mechanisms, budgetary allocation, and real-time monitoring of vulnerable populations. The absence of a national heat law (unlike cold wave provisions under NDMA) is a significant gap.
Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
What is a GLOF?
A GLOF occurs when water dammed by a glacier or moraine (glacial debris) is released suddenly, causing catastrophic downstream flooding. Climate change accelerates glacier retreat, creating new and expanding existing glacial lakes — increasing GLOF risk.
| Factor | Detail |
|---|---|
| Mechanism | Glacier retreat forms meltwater lakes behind moraines; trigger (landslide, avalanche, seepage, earthquake) breaches the moraine dam |
| Speed | Floodwater can travel at 30-60 km/h, carrying enormous volumes of debris |
| Warning time | Often minutes to hours — extremely limited |
| Monitoring | ICIMOD (International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development) monitors glacial lakes across the Hindu Kush Himalaya |
Chamoli Disaster (7 February 2021)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Location | Chamoli district, Uttarakhand — Nanda Devi National Park environs |
| Cause | A massive rock and ice avalanche from Ronti Peak — approximately 27 million cubic metres of material dislodged (initially misidentified as a GLOF) |
| Rivers affected | Rishiganga, Dhauliganga, and then Alaknanda (a major headstream of the Ganges) |
| Casualties | 204 people missing; 83 bodies and 36 body parts recovered (as of May 2021) |
| Infrastructure | Two hydroelectric projects destroyed — Rishiganga (13.2 MW) and Tapovan Vishnugad (520 MW under construction) |
| Key lesson | Highlighted the dangers of building hydropower projects in fragile Himalayan valleys; the disaster was worsened by narrow valley channelling the flood |
Sikkim GLOF (3-4 October 2023)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Location | South Lhonak Lake, 5,200 m above sea level, North Sikkim |
| Cause | Collapse of up to 14.7 million cubic metres of frozen moraine material (permafrost landslide) into South Lhonak Lake, triggering a GLOF |
| Lake growth | South Lhonak Lake dramatically expanded from 0.2 sq km (1976) to 1.67 sq km (2023) due to glacier retreat — a direct climate change indicator |
| Flood path | Floodwater travelled 385 km along the Teesta River, all the way to Bangladesh |
| Casualties | 55+ confirmed deaths, 74+ missing, 88,400 people affected; final toll reached 92+ as recovery operations continued (Government of Sikkim / Wikipedia data) |
| Infrastructure | The 1,200 MW Teesta III dam was destroyed — one of Sikkim's largest hydropower projects |
| Climate link | Scientific studies confirmed climate change played a key role; permafrost thawing likely destabilised the moraine |
Prelims Fact: South Lhonak Lake expanded from 0.2 sq km in 1976 to 1.67 sq km in 2023 due to glacier retreat. ICIMOD monitors glacial lakes across the Hindu Kush Himalaya for GLOF risk.
ICIMOD and GLOF Monitoring
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| ICIMOD | Intergovernmental knowledge and learning centre based in Kathmandu, Nepal; 8 member countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan) |
| Glacial lake inventory | Catalogued over 25,000 glacial lakes across the Hindu Kush Himalaya |
| High-risk lakes | Several hundred lakes identified as potentially dangerous; South Lhonak was a known high-risk lake before the 2023 event |
| Early warning | ICIMOD supports community-based early warning systems in glacier-fed river valleys |
Urban Flooding — Chennai 2015 and Mumbai 2005
Mumbai Floods (26 July 2005)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Rainfall | 944 mm in 24 hours — approximately 40% of Mumbai's annual rainfall in a single day |
| Peak intensity | Up to 80 mm per hour |
| Casualties | Over 1,000 deaths total (official Maharashtra government figure ~1,094); direct flood deaths ~419 + subsequent illness deaths ~216 in some tallies |
| Economic loss | Estimated Rs 20,000 crore (USD 2.3 billion at as-if values) — India's costliest insured flood event |
| Root causes | Drainage system designed for only 30 mm/hour; high tide coincided with peak rainfall; encroachment on Mithi River floodplain; loss of mangroves |
Chennai Floods (November-December 2015)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Rainfall | Over 1,049 mm in November-December — three times the average for the period |
| Casualties | 300+ deaths, thousands displaced |
| Economic loss | USD 3.5 billion (Munich Re estimate) — second costliest global event of 2015 after the Nepal earthquake |
| Root causes | Encroachment on Adyar, Cooum, and Buckingham Canal floodplains; destruction of Pallikaranai marshland; inadequate stormwater drainage; unplanned urbanisation |
Lessons from Urban Flooding
| Lesson | Detail |
|---|---|
| Wetland preservation | Wetlands and natural drainage systems act as sponges; their destruction increases flood risk exponentially |
| Flood zoning | Mandatory flood-risk mapping and zoning before permitting construction |
| Drainage upgrades | Most Indian cities have drainage designed for 25-50 mm/hour — grossly inadequate for cloudbursts |
| Sponge city concept | Permeable surfaces, rain gardens, green roofs — Chinese "sponge city" model applicable to Indian cities |
| Early warning | Integration of IMD rainfall forecasts with municipal flood management systems |
For Mains: Urban flooding is a governance failure as much as a natural disaster. The Mithi River in Mumbai and Pallikaranai Marsh in Chennai were systematically encroached upon. Discuss how the convergence of climate change (more intense rainfall) and poor urban planning creates compound disaster risks.
Compound and Cascading Disasters
What Are Compound Disasters?
Compound disasters involve two or more hazards occurring simultaneously or sequentially, where the combined impact is greater than the sum of individual events.
| Type | Example |
|---|---|
| Simultaneous | Heat wave + drought (as in peninsular India, 2024) |
| Sequential/cascading | Earthquake triggers landslide, which dams river, forming lake, which bursts (Chamoli 2021 pattern) |
| Compounding with pandemic | Cyclone Amphan (2020) struck during COVID-19 lockdown — evacuation conflicted with social distancing norms |
| Climate + anthropogenic | Cloud burst + deforestation + road construction = amplified landslide (Uttarakhand, recurring) |
Cloud Bursts in the Himalayas
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Definition | Sudden, intense rainfall exceeding 100 mm in one hour over a small area (~20-30 sq km) |
| Hotspots | Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh |
| Climate link | Warming temperatures increase atmospheric moisture; orographic lifting in Himalayan valleys triggers localised downpours |
| Impact | Flash floods, landslides, road blockages, loss of life — disproportionately affecting mountain communities |
| Wayanad, Kerala (2024) | Massive landslides triggered by intense rainfall killed over 300 people — the deadliest single landslide event in recent Indian history |
Loss and Damage Fund (COP28)
Background
Loss and damage refers to climate change impacts that cannot be addressed by mitigation or adaptation — the unavoidable residual harm suffered by vulnerable countries and communities.
COP28 Operationalisation (December 2023)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Decision | Operationalised on Day 1 of COP28 (30 November 2023) in Dubai — a decade after the concept was first introduced |
| Interim host | World Bank designated as interim trustee and fund host for a 4-year period |
| Governing board | 26 members: 14 from developing countries, 12 from developed countries |
| Total pledges (COP28) | USD 661 million committed at COP28; total pledges reached ~USD 741 million by COP29 (Baku, Nov 2024) when Fund fully activated |
Key Financial Pledges
| Country/Entity | Amount |
|---|---|
| UAE | USD 100 million |
| Germany | USD 100 million |
| UK | GBP 60 million |
| EU | EUR 225 million |
| Japan | USD 10 million |
| USA | USD 17.5 million (pending Congressional approval) |
For Mains: The FRLD (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage) represents a breakthrough in climate justice but faces severe underfunding and political setbacks. Total pledges (~USD 741 million as of COP29) are a fraction of estimated annual losses in developing countries (~USD 395 billion). The USA's withdrawal of its USD 17.5 million pledge under the Trump administration (early 2025) has deepened the equity crisis. Discuss: developing countries contribute least to emissions but bear the highest disaster costs; the FRLD's USD 250 million start-up package for 2025-26 is a first step but structurally inadequate. India has advocated for this fund since COP-13 (Bali, 2007).
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Launched | September 2019 by PM Modi at the UN Climate Action Summit, New York |
| Nature | International coalition — multi-stakeholder partnership |
| Founding members | 13 countries: India (host/launcher) + 12 partner countries — Australia, Bhutan, Fiji, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Maldives, Mexico, Mongolia, Rwanda, Sri Lanka, and the UK |
| Headquarters | New Delhi, India |
| Legal status | Indian Cabinet categorised CDRI as an "International Organisation" (2022), granting it privileges under the UN Privileges & Immunities Act, 1947 |
| Current membership | 40+ countries and organisations |
CDRI Objectives
| Objective | Detail |
|---|---|
| Knowledge sharing | Technical support and knowledge products for disaster-resilient infrastructure |
| Standards | Developing global standards and frameworks for resilient infrastructure |
| Capacity building | Training programmes for SIDS (Small Island Developing States) and LDCs |
| Infrastructure resilience | Focus on transport, energy, telecom, water, and social infrastructure |
| IRIS | Infrastructure for Resilient Island States initiative — launched at COP26 (Glasgow, 2021) |
Prelims Fact: CDRI was launched by India in September 2019 at the UN Climate Action Summit. Its headquarters are in New Delhi. IRIS (Infrastructure for Resilient Island States) was launched at COP26 in 2021.
Climate Adaptation Framework in India
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Launched | 2008, under PM Manmohan Singh |
| Missions | 8 National Missions — Solar, Enhanced Energy Efficiency, Sustainable Habitat, Water, Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, Green India, Sustainable Agriculture, Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change |
| Status | Under revision and updation; several missions have dedicated funding and implementation mechanisms |
State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Coverage | 34 States/UTs have prepared SAPCCs aligned with NAPCC |
| Purpose | Align national climate objectives with regional development priorities and local environmental context |
| Framework | Common framework developed by UNDP in partnership with MoEFCC for consistent methodology |
| Sectors | Agriculture, water, forestry, health, urban planning, energy, disaster management |
| Challenge | Many SAPCCs remain poorly implemented due to lack of dedicated funding, technical capacity, and institutional coordination |
National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | August 2015 |
| Purpose | Meet the cost of adaptation for States/UTs particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts |
| Implementing entity | NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) designated as National Implementing Entity (NIE) |
| Projects sanctioned | 30 projects in 27 States/UTs as of 2025 |
| Focus areas | Climate-resilient agriculture, water management, coastal protection, forest conservation, community-based adaptation |
Adaptation vs Mitigation — A Comparative Framework
| Parameter | Mitigation | Adaptation |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Reducing greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change | Adjusting to current and expected climate change impacts |
| Examples | Renewable energy, EVs, carbon tax, afforestation | Flood-resistant infrastructure, heat-resilient crops, early warning systems |
| Timeframe | Long-term (decades to see results) | Immediate to medium-term (benefits felt sooner) |
| Beneficiary | Global (any emission reduction benefits everyone) | Local/regional (adaptation is context-specific) |
| India's stance | Committed to Net Zero by 2070; Panchamrit pledges at COP26 | Emphasises adaptation needs of developing countries; demands climate finance |
| Funding | Better funded globally | Chronically underfunded — adaptation receives only ~25% of global climate finance |
For Mains: India's position at climate negotiations has consistently emphasised that adaptation must receive equal priority and funding as mitigation. The principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) demands that developed countries, as historical emitters, fund adaptation in vulnerable developing countries. Discuss this in the context of the Loss and Damage Fund.
Climate-Resilient Infrastructure
Principles
| Principle | Detail |
|---|---|
| Risk assessment | All infrastructure projects must undergo climate risk assessment — mapping projected temperature, rainfall, sea-level changes |
| Design standards | Building codes must incorporate climate projections (not just historical data) — e.g., drainage designed for projected 2050 rainfall, not 1970s averages |
| Nature-based solutions | Mangrove restoration for coastal protection, wetland conservation for flood mitigation, urban forests for heat island reduction |
| Redundancy | Critical systems (power, water, telecom) must have backup and alternative pathways |
| Adaptive management | Infrastructure must be designed for modification as climate projections evolve |
Key Indian Initiatives
| Initiative | Detail |
|---|---|
| CDRI | Global platform for knowledge sharing and standards development (India-led) |
| National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP) | Rs 111 lakh crore infrastructure plan (2020-2025) — needs climate resilience integration |
| Smart Cities Mission | Climate-resilient urban planning in 100 cities — green buildings, stormwater management, EV infrastructure |
| AMRUT 2.0 | Climate-resilient water supply and sewerage in 500 cities |
| Jal Jeevan Mission | Climate-proofing rural water supply — ensuring year-round water security despite changing rainfall patterns |
Cross-paper relevance
- GS3 — Disaster Management (primary) — Climate-disaster nexus: 322 extreme weather days (2024), 3,472 deaths, climate change as disaster risk multiplier, NDMF/SDMF for prevention
- GS3 — Environment — Core intersection: climate adaptation = DRR, India's NDC alignment with disaster resilience, Loss and Damage Fund (COP27) relevance
- GS3 — Economy — Infrastructure resilience: climate-proofing NIP (₹111 lakh crore), Smart Cities, AMRUT 2.0, Jal Jeevan Mission adaptation dimension
- Essay — Recurring theme: "Climate change: the great disaster multiplier" (2023); "Adaptation: India's most urgent climate imperative" (2022)
Recent Developments (2024–2026)
India's 2024 Climate-Disaster Record — 322 Extreme Weather Days
CSE and Down to Earth's 2024 Annual Report on Extreme Weather documented India experiencing extreme weather on 322 days in 2024 — the highest frequency recorded. Fatalities: 3,472 (15% increase over 2023). Agricultural damage: 4.07 million hectares of cropped land affected (84% increase). The region-by-region breakdown shows: Central India (Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh) — 253 extreme weather days with highest crop damage; North-East and East — most flood deaths; South India — Wayanad landslide as the single deadliest event.
The data directly demonstrates the climate-disaster nexus: each of the major hazard categories (floods, heat waves, cyclones, landslides, droughts) showed higher frequency and/or intensity in 2024 compared to the 2011–2020 baseline period. India's NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution) update to UNFCCC in 2022 explicitly acknowledges increased disaster frequency as a climate adaptation challenge, linking DRR to climate action.
UPSC angle: Prelims — CSE/DTE State of Extreme Weather Report 2024; 322 extreme weather days; 3,472 deaths; 4.07 mn ha cropped area. Mains (GS3) — data-driven climate-disaster nexus analysis; NDC-DRR integration; adaptation as DRR.
Loss and Damage Framework — COP29 Full Operationalisation and US Withdrawal (2024–2025)
The Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage (FRLD) — agreed in principle at COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh, 2022) and operationalised at COP28 (Dubai, December 2023) — was fully activated at COP29 (Baku, November 2024). Key FRLD facts (as of May 2026):
- Host country: Philippines (Board secretariat based in Manila)
- Interim trustee: World Bank (4-year period)
- Executive Director: Ibrahima Cheikh Diong
- Total pledges: ~USD 741 million (far below the estimated annual need of USD 395 billion in developing countries)
- Start-up package: USD 250 million approved by the Board in April 2025 for use through 2026
- US withdrawal: The Trump administration withdrew the USA from the FRLD Board in early 2025, walking back its USD 17.5 million pledge — widely criticised given the USA's status as the single largest historical greenhouse gas emitter
India's position: supported the FRLD but insisted on differentiated responsibility (historical emitters must contribute proportionally more) and opposed language suggesting voluntary contributions from developing countries. India was among the first countries to formally call for "loss and damage" recognition at COP-13 (Bali, 2007) — nearly two decades before the Fund became operational.
The gap between pledges (USD 741 million) and need (USD 395 billion/year) is the central equity argument: climate-vulnerable developing nations (responsible for a small fraction of cumulative emissions) bear disproportionate disaster costs, while the largest historical emitters have contributed minimally and one (USA) has now withdrawn entirely.
UPSC angle (Prelims 2027): FRLD: COP27 agreed, COP28 operationalised, COP29 fully activated; Philippines host; World Bank trustee; USD 741 million pledged vs USD 395 billion annual need; US withdrew in 2025. Mains (GS3/IR/Ethics) — loss and damage vs adaptation vs mitigation; India's climate diplomacy; equity dimension of climate finance; US withdrawal and climate justice implications.
Compound Disasters — Emerging Threat in India (2024–2025)
India is increasingly experiencing "compound disasters" — where two or more hazards occur simultaneously or sequentially, amplifying impacts beyond what either event would cause alone. Examples from 2024: Wayanad — extreme rainfall + land instability + flash flood (compound event causing 400+ deaths); Northeast India monsoon 2024 — simultaneous flooding of Brahmaputra tributaries + landslides in Meghalaya + cyclonic rainfall (Assam, Mizoram) — creating a simultaneous multi-state crisis.
NDMA's draft guidelines on compound disaster preparedness (2024) acknowledge that existing hazard-specific response protocols are inadequate for compound events. The proposed DM Act Amendment (2024) includes "compound disasters" as a new category requiring specific inter-ministry response protocols. Scientists at IIT Delhi and ICIMOD published a 2024 paper mapping India's highest compound-disaster risk zones — including Northeast India (Brahmaputra valley), coastal Odisha (cyclone + storm surge + river flooding), and the Hindukush-Himalaya (GLOF + flash flood + landslide cascade).
UPSC angle: Prelims — compound disasters; NDMA draft guidelines 2024; ICIMOD (International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development). Mains (GS3) — compound disaster governance gap; multi-hazard early warning systems; institutional coordination for concurrent crises.
Exam Strategy
Prelims Focus Areas
- IPCC AR6: released 2021-2023; key finding that human influence is "unequivocal"
- IMD heat wave criteria: 40 degrees C plains, 30 degrees C hills, departure of 4.5 degrees C
- Chamoli 2021: rock-ice avalanche from Ronti Peak (not a GLOF), 204 missing
- Sikkim 2023: South Lhonak Lake GLOF, 1,200 MW Teesta III dam destroyed
- CDRI: launched 2019, HQ New Delhi, 13 founding members (India + 12 partner countries), IRIS initiative at COP26
- Loss and Damage Fund: operationalised COP28 (2023), World Bank as interim host, USD 661 million pledged
- NAPCC: 2008, 8 missions; NAFCC: 2015, NABARD as NIE, 30 projects in 27 States
- SAPCC: 34 States/UTs have prepared plans
Mains Answer Frameworks
Q: "Climate change is a threat multiplier for disaster risk. Examine with reference to recent Indian experiences."
Structure:
- Climate-disaster nexus — IPCC AR6 evidence
- Heat waves — increasing mortality, IMD data, HAP limitations
- GLOFs — Chamoli 2021, Sikkim 2023 as case studies
- Urban flooding — Chennai 2015, Mumbai 2005 — climate + governance failure
- Compound disasters — cascading events, cloud bursts + construction
- Way forward — CDRI, climate-resilient infrastructure, early warning, NAFCC
Q: "Evaluate the effectiveness of India's institutional framework for climate adaptation."
Structure:
- NAPCC and 8 missions — design vs implementation gap
- SAPCCs — coverage (34 States) but poor execution
- NAFCC — 30 projects, limited scale
- CDRI — global leadership but domestic application needs strengthening
- Loss and Damage Fund — international advocacy vs domestic preparedness
- Way forward — dedicated adaptation finance, climate risk in all infrastructure, community-based adaptation
Key Terms
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
- Definition: The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) is an India-led global partnership of national governments, UN agencies, multilateral development banks, the private sector and knowledge institutions that promotes the resilience of infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks. Launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the UN Climate Action Summit in New York on 23 September 2019, it is headquartered in New Delhi.
- Context: CDRI was conceptualised through the International Workshops on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (IWDRI) held in 2018-19, organised by India's National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in partnership with the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). It operationalises the infrastructure-resilience goals of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-30) and the Sustainable Development Goals. India was the first country to host a multilateral disaster-resilience body of this kind, giving the coalition a distinct South-led character while keeping membership open to developed and developing nations alike.
- UPSC Relevance: CDRI is a high-frequency GS3 topic under disaster management and the environment-and-international-grouping interface, and it also carries a GS2 angle as an India-led international organisation that projects soft power and climate diplomacy. For Prelims, aspirants should remember the launch year and venue (2019, UN Climate Action Summit), the New Delhi secretariat, its International Organization status, and the IRIS sub-initiative for island states. This is a foundational concept that underpins questions on disaster risk reduction, the Sendai Framework, and India's leadership in global climate and resilience initiatives; no direct dated PYQ is cited here to avoid fabrication.
Climate Risk
- Definition: The probability of harmful consequences — loss of life, injury, infrastructure damage, livelihoods disruption — arising from the interaction of climate hazards (heatwaves, floods, cyclones, droughts) with the vulnerability and exposure of people and systems.
- Origin: IPCC AR6 (2021–22) framing; Climate Risk = Hazard × Exposure × Vulnerability; used in the Loss & Damage discourse at UNFCCC COP meetings.
- UPSC: IPCC's AR6 framework; India's climate vulnerability (coasts, Himalayan glaciers, agriculture); Loss and Damage Fund established at COP27 (2022) and operationalised at COP28 (2023).
Compound Events
- Definition: Climate-related events that combine multiple hazards simultaneously or sequentially (e.g., drought followed by wildfire, heatwave during a flood) producing impacts greater than individual events would cause.
- Origin: IPCC AR6 Special Report on Extremes (SREX); increasingly relevant as climate change intensifies overlapping risks.
- UPSC: GS1 climate questions; India examples — Cyclone + coastal flooding + storm surge; heat + humidity (wet-bulb temperature exceeding human tolerance); relevant for NDMA planning.
Nature-Based Solutions (NbS)
- Definition: Actions that protect, sustainably manage, or restore natural and modified ecosystems to address societal challenges (including disaster risk and climate adaptation) while providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits.
- Origin: IUCN definition; mainstreamed in global climate discussions; India's initiatives — mangrove restoration for coastal protection, wetland restoration for flood buffering.
- UPSC: Relevant for DRR and climate adaptation; India's mangrove cover; Coastal Regulation Zone and mangrove protection; contrast with grey infrastructure (seawalls).
Loss and Damage
- Definition: The residual negative impacts of climate change that cannot be avoided through mitigation or adapted to — including both economic losses (infrastructure, crops) and non-economic losses (cultural heritage, biodiversity, loss of life).
- Origin: Warsaw International Mechanism (WIM, COP19, 2013); Santiago Network (COP25, 2019); Fund agreed at COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh, 2022); Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage (FRLD) fully operationalised at COP29 (Baku, November 2024) — Philippines is host country; World Bank is interim trustee; Executive Director: Ibrahima Cheikh Diong.
- UPSC: Total pledges ~$768 million (far below the hundreds of billions needed annually); US withdrew from the Fund in early 2025 (Trump administration, walked back $17.5M pledge); $250 million start-up package approved April 2025; India's position — historical emitters must contribute; India is both a vulnerable nation and a major emitter; equity dimension of climate finance.
Heat Island Effect
- Definition: The phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to dark impervious surfaces, reduced vegetation, waste heat from vehicles and air conditioning, and reduced evapotranspiration.
- Origin: Documented since the early 19th century; increasingly severe with urban expansion; relevant to India's heatwave-urban interaction.
- UPSC: Heatwave definition (IMD — temperature ≥40°C in plains; ≥30°C in hills; or 4.5°C above normal); Heat Action Plans (Ahmedabad's HAP was India's first, 2013); NDMA heatwave guidelines.
